However, the African nationalist movement was led by the better educated young middle-class that had little exposure to communism or socialism. Soviet Union. The Soviet Union withdrew its Ambassador after the Sharpeville massacre in 1960. Most socialist systems today are participatory democracies. ", Philip E. Muehlenbeck, "Kennedy and Toure: A success in personal diplomacy. By 1948 Soviet-sponsored and -directed communists had consolidated their control of the governments of eastern and central Europe and suppressed all noncommunist political activity. It was waged mainly on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and lasted until 1991. [3], After 1953, the continent underwent a rapid process of decolonization, whereby nearly all the colonies became independent nations. But for many leaders, it made more sense to evolve an The following day, a huge sea and air assault, supporting landings of British tanks and marines, succeeded in taking the port. Underlying this common policy was the cynical maxim reputedly uttered by US president Franklin D Roosevelt about Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza Garca, but equally applicable to any of the rivals chosen African despots He may be a son of a bitch, but hes our son of a bitch.. The Kremlin supported Gizenga, but did not want to take the international risks involved in delivering material aid to the blockaded Orientale Province. Feuchtwanger, Edgar, and Peter Nailor, eds. A rival government, the "Free Republic of the Congo", was founded in the eastern city of Stanleyville by Lumumba supporters, led by Antoine Gizenga. [20], The relationship went sour within years after the death of Nasser, when the new president Anwar Sadat started re-orienting the country toward the West. Communist nations, dominated by the Soviet Union and China, withdraw from the global economic system. [24], The 1974 coup installed the Derg, a Communist military junta under General Mengistu Haile Mariam. the revolution in 1974. declared a Marxist Leninist state in 1974, under Mathieu Kerekou. & Leaders. French Indochina. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1987. In February 1989, Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Eduard Shevardnadze visited Egypt. It will not include, therefore, one of Africas greatest human dramas, the Nigerian civil war (19671970), because the two superpowers supported the federal government in Lagos. Furthermore, Nkrumah feared close relations with the Soviets would lead to a neo-colonialist relationship. Byrne, Jeffrey James. But could they deliver a golden age for their followers? This was the line taken by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in 1955 when he extended patronage to Nasser. Cold War Alliances. Meanwhile, the United States launched the Marshall Plan, which infused massive amounts of economic aid . Nato also armed two colonial powers, France and Portugal, in their struggles against nationalist insurgents in Algeria, Angola and Mozambique. The list of external actors also includes the other Scandinavian countries, Yugoslavia, Moscows Eastern European clients, Egypt, and the Peoples Republic of China. South African white politicians routinely denounced the ANC as a devious communist plot to overthrow the government. Communist regimes began to collapse in eastern Europe, and democratic governments rose in East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, followed by the reunification of West and East Germany under NATO auspices. The Soviet Union agreed to fund its new ally and hoped that Ethiopia and Somalia could form a communist federation. Berkeley, CA: Institute of International Studies, 1979. Allied in 1969, but soon Mobutu was similarly supported Soon after, Mixinge became one of the tens of thousands of Africans to travel to Cuba for schooling. Moscow extended $100 million and credits to buy Soviet exports, while China provided $50 million in credits. He was overthrown by his defense minister Houari Boumdine, who was in charge 1965-1976. Lawrence James is a historian and author of Empires in the Sun: The Struggle for the Mastery of Africa (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2016), This content first appeared in issue 3 of BBC World Histories magazine, Save up to 49% AND your choice of gift card worth 10* when you subscribe BBC History Magazine or BBC History Revealed PLUS! The highlights this week: A recently concluded Chinese Communist Party leadership meeting offered some hints about an impending . The communist governments of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union collapsed between 1989 and 1991. Moreover and this was a growing source of anxiety for Washington Britain and France no longer enjoyed their former prestige in Africa, and their efforts to cling on there imperilled American interests. Many returned home full of new ideas, and began to question the old imperial order. The Cold War was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. On the other hand, both ideology and realpolitik led the Soviet Union to support those who fought for independence. He was responding to events in the Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, DRC) in 1960 following the withdrawal of the Belgians, who had enriched themselves on their colonys mineral resources and neglected the welfare of their subjects: on independence day, 30 June 1960, the Congo had perhaps just 200 African graduates. CIA covert operations are by their very nature hard to prove definitively. Although some countries, such as Angola and Ethiopia, became allies for a while, the connections proved temporary. This coup de main misfired. Omissions? You could not be signed in, please check and try again. For full treatment, see international relations. Soviets and Americans were not the only outside actors on the stage of decolonization. In 1975, when the Portuguese made a clumsy exit from Angola, the MPLA was already embroiled in a war against two rival movements (the FNLA and UNITA), funded by the CIA, Zaire (now known as the Democratic Republic of Congo), and the South African apartheid regime none of whom were keen to see an African, Marxist party take power in oil-rich Angola. Paris sold Algeria French warplanes in 1968, looking to counterbalance the Soviet influence. [2] In the Comintern, the chief spokesmen for Africa were whites from the Communist Party of South Africa. From 1960, the Soviet Union became involved in several Marxist, African struggles, providing political support, weapons and military training, including to the Peoples Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in their fight against the Portuguese. Cold War priorities dictated events in southern Africa, too. The Cold War reached its peak in 194853. Afrocommunism. driving the others to use guerilla tactics to resist communist rule. [26], Moscows public embrace of Mengistu troubled Siad Barre's pro-Communist regime in Somalia. Castro had learned from Guatemala, and was able to thwart a coup attempt in 1961. Algeria became a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and largely targeted its rhetoric towards the United States, rather than France. By midnight, British and French troops had secured the canal zone and sparked fury from the United States and the Soviet Union. Please subscribe or login. UNION. An age of foreign interference. The United States was sympathetic, in principle, to the gradual progression of colonized people toward independence. From 1960, the Soviet Union became involved in several Marxist, African struggles, providing political support, weapons and military training, including to the People's Movement for the Liberation. by the West for making a public stand against Communism, while at the The defeat fatally undermined the apartheid regime, and Nelson Mandela would declare: We are deeply indebted to the Cuban people for the selfless contribution they made to the anti-colonial and anti-apartheid struggle in our region we will never forget those who stood by us in the darkest years of our struggle against apartheid.. For its part the Soviet Union was happy to give military support to the governments of Angola and Mozambique and to the ANC. Rather than being seen as a form of communism, African socialism was viewed as a pragmatic ideology that blended some aspects of classical socialism, communism, Pan-Africanism, and African traditional values. Moscows doctrinal purists had dismissed Nasser as a radical nationalist in the mould of those military strongmen who held sway across South America. The success of International Communism in gaining nine stooge states in Africa by the beginning of 1967 is near spectacular if two factors are borne in mind. [19] During the Nasser years, many young Egyptians studied in Soviet universities and military schools. In the mid-1950s, two developments signaled the arrival of the Cold War in North Africa: the Algerian War of independence against France began in November 1954; and Egypt adopted an independent foreign policy, challenging British influence in the Middle East, helping the Algerian rebels, and buying weapons from the Soviet bloc. Lawrence James explores the efforts of the United States and Soviet Union to secure influence across the post-colonial continent. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. Fidel Castro sent 300,000 Cuban troops to Africa to support fellow revolutionaries against Western imperialism. The Congo, Decolonization, and the Cold War, 1960-1965. The United States had won on points. "Revisiting the Soviet Moment in Sub-Saharan Africa". Get 6 issues for 19.99 and receive a 10 gift card* PLUS free access to HistoryExtra.com, Save 70% on the shop price when you subscribe today - Get 13 issues for just $49.99 + FREE access to HistoryExtra.com, Snuffed out democracies and poisoned toothpaste: how the Cold War wreaked havoc in post-colonial Africa, Cold War conflicts played havoc with African politics and snuffed out many fledgling democracies, The CIA brought dollars - and a hitman with poisoned toothpaste. [21][22] Relations were reestablished under president Hosni Mubarak in 1984, and Alexander Belonogov became the Ambassador. In the interwar period (19191939), the Africans who fought against colonial rule, such as the Moroccans, were virtually on their own: they received very little help from abroad. Red Africa: From a generation of cinematographers to the end of apartheid Africa, Cuba and the Soviet Union. But Africa was left, traumatised, to pick up the pieces and face the problems created by the corrupt dictatorships that were the Cold Wars lasting legacy. Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba threatened the nationalisation of foreign businesses, and looked to the Soviet Union for assistance. [33][34] During the 1980s, a convoluted series of arms sales involving the Stasi, the Danish ship Pia Vesta, and Manuel Noriega of Panama ultimately aimed to transfer Soviet arms and military vehicles to South Africa. [29], In the 15-year Western Sahara War, the Soviet Union supported the Polisario Front and sent arms via Algeria. Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces soldiers, however did not engage in combat, and after the overthrow of Castro's friend Ben Bella, Cuba cut back its involvement. In 1945, Africa was controlled by the friends and clients of the United StatesBritain, France, Portugal, Belgium, and Spain. In 1947 self-government was granted to India by Britains Labour government, which was also committed (as were the Conservatives) to self-determination for African colonies. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. It is argued that these states can be divided into orthodox and heterodox categories depending on how closely their governments aligned with the thinking of the Russian Communist Party. under Mengistu Haile Mariam, following Socialism in Sub-Sahara Africa: A New Assessment. Communist parties in these colonies were constantly under pressure by either the colonial government or a white-dominated regime. Not only did Moscow oppose colonialism in principle, but the insurgents were fighting Washingtons friends. Cold War Alliances& Leaders. This page was last edited on 29 January 2023, at 09:44. [8] Moscow also expected that the Soviet model of industrialization and nationalization would prove attractive, but that approach did not resonate with the nationalistic forces, which were black based on the small middle class and were socializing the means of production. The USA have a story of backup Coup d'tat in the countries of Latin America, support for anti-communist dictatorships such as Indonesia or Phillipines and millitary invasions as in Vietnam. The Soviet Navy benefited from its use of Angolan ports to stage exercises. Communism in Africa. In The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism Online. Anti-Communism informed almost every aspect of the South African government's foreign policy and much of its domestic policy. Orwell understood it as a nuclear stalemate between super-states: each possessed weapons of mass destruction and was capable of annihilating the other. US and Soviet intelligence agencies played kingmakers, financing and overseeing coups to install biddable rulers. The Cold War in Africa had ended. Even though socialist ideas were popular among African intellectuals, the emerging nationalists on the continent felt that these ideas had to somehow be molded to fit the realities of the African condition. From 1960 to 1964, De Beers had a unique arrangement to sell Soviet diamonds from Siberia. United States intervention in Angola was heavily shaped by several factors. The years following the end of the Second World War saw both the start of the Cold War between the west and the eastern bloc, and the break-up of empires as colonies across Africa and Asia strove for independence. The United States treated Angola and Mozambique as strategic assets, arming the 200,000 Portuguese conscripts who fought a long-running war against local nationalist insurgents with an imported arsenal including napalm and defoliants. The Soviets hailed Ethiopia for its supposed similar cultural and historical parallels to the USSR. Saivetz, Carol R., and Sylvia Woodby, eds. changed sides to become violently anti-Soviet. It also involves a rejection of the free market and the private ownership of property. The Cuban camp was the brightest and cleanest place in the neighbourhood, and they were known as being hardworking, friendly, fair and fun. Although the communist ideas and arguments of such European theorists as Marx and Engels have been around since just before the turn of the 20th century, they have never been widespread in Africa. Robert A. Scalapino, "Sino-Soviet Competition in Africa", Alessandro Iandolo, "The rise and fall of the Soviet Model of Development in West Africa, 195764. "Soviet training and research programs for Africa." During this trip he famously criticised Kodak film stock for being inherently racist. "The Soviet Union in the Third World: Purpose in Search of Power.". In 1948 President Vincent Auriol reminded Algerians that their country was never a state; you were rescued from slavery as well as tribes fighting each other. The Cold War had solidified by 194748, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe. Fear of Communism. But Fidel Castro knew that the US, reeling from its messy withdrawal from Vietnam, would not be drawn openly into another foreign war. By the late 1950s, however, Paris and London, which had by far the two largest colonial empires in Africa, were ready to make concessions to the Africans growing demands for self-determination. By entering your details, you are agreeing to our terms and conditions and privacy policy. In 1954 the Algerian Front de Libration Nationale (National Liberation Front) began an uprising that triggered an eight-year partisan war of attrition in which more than a million died, most of them Arabs. Japan. Mr. [16], The South African government evoked the term rooi gevaar to refer the political and military threat posed by the Soviet Union's support for the guerrilla wings of anti-apartheid movements such as SWAPO and the ANC. [13], Algeria supported the Polisario Front, a left-wing movement supported by Moscow that battled for 10 years for control of Western Sahara from Morocco. The signing of the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty followed in 1963, which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was hostile to Tour, so the African nation quickly turned to the Soviet Unionmaking it the Kremlin's first success story in Africa. Under the glare of international public opinion, colonial rule could be justified only through economic aid to uplift the natives, and this would add to the financial burden on the metropoles. Havana provided military and civilian assistance. The United States and the Soviet Union began developing intercontinental ballistic missiles, and in 1962 the Soviets began secretly installing missiles in Cuba that could be used to launch nuclear attacks on U.S. cities. Gorbachevs reforms meanwhile weakened his own communist party and allowed power to shift to the constituent governments of the Soviet bloc. Expand or collapse the "in this article" section, The Congo (Now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), 19601965, War in the Portuguese Colonies, 19611975, European Communist Countries Other Than the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, Art, Art History, and the Study of Africa, British Colonial Rule in Sub-Saharan Africa, Communism, Marxist-Leninism, and Socialism in Africa, Development of Early Farming and Pastoralism, Early States And State Formation In Africa, Eastern Africa and the South Asian Diaspora, Great Lakes States of Eastern Africa, The, Health, Medicine, and the Study of Africa, Historiography and Methods of African History, Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern Slave Trades, Kongo and the Coastal States of West Central Africa. In the mid-1950s, two developments signaled the arrival of the Cold War in North Africa: the Algerian War of independence against France began in November 1954; and Egypt adopted an independent foreign policy, challenging British influence in the Middle East, helping the Algerian rebels, and buying weapons from the Soviet bloc. Joseph Stalin considered Africa to be low priority and discouraged relationships with or studies of the continent. United Nations (UN) secretary-general Dag Hammarskjld feared the imminent communisation of the Congo, despite the despatch of UN peacekeepers. The USSR used its fleet of Antonov An-12 and Antonov An-22 air transports, as well as cargo vessels, to ship a billion dollars in fighter-bombers, tanks, artillery, and ammunition in a very short time. The onset of the Cold War added a sense of urgency. [9] The passive reliance on the Soviet model of development failed because of the unreliability of local leaders, and by the Congo Crisis the Kremlin learned that it was essential to find and promote ideologically reliable leaders, who needed Soviet help to build enough military strength to control their country. America did likewise. Matusevich, Maxim. In these colonies, jailing, torturing, and killing Africans was routine, but not on a large scale, except in Madagascar (19471948) and Kenya (19521956), where there were major revolts; neither received outside assistance. We were given two uniforms, one for classes and one for working in the fields, Mixinge recalls. [4] Soviet leaders, beginning with Nikita Khrushchev, were excited by the enthusiastic young black Africans who first came to Moscow for a major youth festival in 1957. End of the World War II. Al Jazeera Centre for Public Liberties & Human Rights. this page. The Kremlin thought Castro's adventurism was dangerous but it was unable to stop him. Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. Mengistu urgently needed help. Pretoria severed diplomatic ties with Moscow in 1956, because of its support for the SACP. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. There are also political reasons that parts of this history have been airbrushed from mainstream retellings of the Cold War not just in the West but also in Russia, which sought to downplay Cubas role compared to that of the USSR, and even Angola, where former adversaries of the MPLA mainly the USA and China have become the most important trading partners, as Christabelle Peters points out. By the mid-1980s, the communist powerhouse was facing an economic crisis, losing a war in Afghanistan and overstretched in Africa. March 30, 1946. Liberation movements across southern Africa were sustained by the Soviet Union and Cuba, which sent large contingents of troops to support independence fighters. But Nasser was an ideal ally in Khrushchevs new policy of challenging the west in Africa. ", Ermarth, Fritz. March 1, 2023, 6:08 PM. Afterwards, US secretary of state John Foster Dulles concluded that it was now imperative for America to fill the vacuum of power which the British filled for a century. Munslow, Barry, ed. The two superpowers soon signed the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963, which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. The term was first used by the English writer George Orwell in an article published in 1945 to refer to what he predicted would be a nuclear stalemate between two or three monstrous super-states, each possessed of a weapon by which millions of people can be wiped out in a few seconds. It was first used in the United States by the American financier and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch in a speech at the State House in Columbia, South Carolina, in 1947. Within a week, the country dissolved into anarchy after the army mutinied. LGBTI Minorities and Queer Politics in Eastern and Souther Maasai and Maa-Speaking Peoples of East Africa, The, Modern African Literature in European Languages, Northeastern African States, c. 1000 BCE-1800 CE, Political Science and the Study of Africa, Postcolonial Sub-Saharan African Politics, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Africa, Social and Cultural Anthropology and the Study of Africa, States of the Zimbabwe Plateau and Zambezi Valley, Swahili City-States of the East African Coast. And Soviet Union and Cuba, which infused massive amounts of economic aid a golden age for followers! The Derg, a communist federation and research programs for Africa. research programs for Africa. on 29 2023! 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